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Allen R.C., Bengtsson T., Dribe M.. Living Standards in the Past: New Perspectives on Well-Being in Asia and Europe. Oxford University Press,2005. - 495 p.. 2005

When did Europe pull ahead of Asia in terms of living standards? A number of well-known scholars compare economic and demographic indicators of well-being in the pre-industrial period. The emerging picture is not one of great differences, but of considerable similarities in standard of living between Europe and Asia before the Industrial Revolution.

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Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Contributors
List of Figures
List of Maps
List of Tables
Introduction
ROBERT C.ALLEN, TOMMY BENGTSSON and MARTIN DRIBE
Inequality in global living standards is a major challenge facing humanity in the new millennium.
The Established View Challenged
Conceptualizing and Measuring Standard of Living
Economic Indicators of Living Standards
Health and Height as Indicators of Well-being
Demographic Response to Short-term Economic Stress
When the Gap between the East and the West Emerged
NOTES
References
Standards of Living in Eighteenth-Centuty China: Regional Differences, Temporal Trends, and Incomplete Evidence
KENNETH POMERANZ
Introduction
Food
Income Distribution
‘Non-essential’ Consumption
How Plausible is a Nineteenth-Century Decline in Living Stand­ards?
NOTES
References
Farm Labour Productivity in Jiangnan, 1620-1850
BOZHONG LI
Introduction
Changes in the Factors of Production in Jiangnan Farming
One of the most commonly accepted notions in studies of Chinese history is that farm labour productivity declined in the late Imperial period.
Labour supply
Cultivated land
Farm technology
Capital investment
Changes in the Jiangnan Peasant Economy
Generally speaking, changes in the production factors themselves do not necessarily affect labour productivity.
One year double-cropping
One man works 10 mu
Man ploughs and woman weaves
Increased Farm Labour Productivity in Jiangnan
Rise in the Standard of Living of Jiangnan Peasants
NOTES
References
Wages, Inequality, and Pre-Industrial Growth in Japan, 1727-1894
OSAMU SAITO
Introduction
Real Wages and Wage Differentials
The Tokugawa economy was composed of two separate currency zones, that is, Osaka and the silver-using western provinces (where monme was the standard unit of currency) and Edo and the gold-using eastern half (where ryo was the standard unit).2
The Kinai
Eastern Japan
The overall pattern
Real Wages and Output Growth
Discussion
Appendix
NOTES
References
Agriculture, Labour, and the Standard of Living in Eighteenth-Century India
Prasannan Parthasarathi
Introduction
The Labour Market and the Standard of Living
The State, Agriculture, and the Labour Market
Conclusion
NOTES
References
Real Wages in Europe and Asia: A First Look at the Long-Term Patterns
ROBERT C.ALLEN
Introduction
Trends and Levels of Real Wages in Europe
Real Wages in Asia
Ideally, real wages in Asia and Europe should be compared by specifying a basket of consumer goods that could be priced in both continents.
Japan
India
China
Conclusion
Appendix
NOTES
References
Sketching the Rise of Real Inequality in Early Modern Europe
PHILIP T.HOFFMAN, DAVID S.JACKS, PATRICIA A.LEVIN, and PETER H.LINDERT
Introduction
Rethinking Early Modern Inequality
First Things First: Differences in Early Modern Life Expectancy
Whose Real Income? Whose Cost of Living? What Prices?
Revising the International Divergence of Real Incomes, 1500-1820s
The usual biases in our scholarly search have distorted our view of international differences in average income in three ways.
Workers versus nations
Cheaper luxuries, greater divergence between nations
Trends in the Class-Specific Cost of Living, 1500-1820s
How has the traditional focus on wage rates and on grain or bread prices biased our view of real-wage trends and inequality trends within countries?
The declining real cost of sen/ants
Selling food or housing to themselves
Tentativecost-of-living indices by income class
Rough Estimates of ‘Real Inequality’ Trends for Early Modern England, France, and Holland
Conclusion
NOTES
References
What Happened to the Standard of Living Before the Industrial Revolution? New Evidence from the Western Part of the Netherlands
JAN LUITEN VAN ZANDEN
Introduction
The Need for a Second Generation of Consumer Price Indices
The Database
The Weights and New Products
Real Wages
Other Evidence Concerning the Development of the Standard of Living
Conclusions and Discussion
Appendix
Sources of Data Information
NOTES
References
Economic Growth, Human Capital Formation and Consumption in Western Europe Before 1800
JAIME REIS
Introduction
Long-Term Growth and Standard of Living in Pre-Industrial Europe
The Rise of Human Capital
Human Capital as an Article of Consumption
Implications for the Standard of Living
Conclusions
NOTES
References
Health and Nutrition in the Pre-Industrial Era: Insights from a Millennium of Average Heights in Northern Europe
RICHARD H.STECKEL
Introduction
Background
Height Patterns during Industrialization
Pre-industrial Heights
Among the eight countries studied in Health and Welfare During Industrialisation, all but Germany have some military height data that cover small portions of the pre-industrial era.
Extending the record
Possible causes of good net nutrition during the Middle Ages
Possible factors in the health decline
Height recovery
Concluding Remarks
NOTES
References
The Burden of Grandeur: Physical and Economic Well-Being of the Russian Population in the Eighteenth Century
BORIS MIRONOV
Introduction
Processing the Data on Stature
The Resulting Patterns in Stature
Factors Behind the Development of Stature
Epidemiological environment
Grain output
Taxes and obligations
Conclusion
NOTES
References
Maternal Mortality as an Indicator of the Standard of Living in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Siavonia
EUGENE A.HAMMEL AND AARON GULLICKSON
Introduction
The Study Region
Measures of Economic and Demographic Stress
Data
Maternal Mortality
In western countries until quite recently MM was common and until perhaps the mid-nineteenth century was often at levels similar to those in modern Less Developed Countries (LDCs).17
DefinitionsofMM
The two foci of MM analysis
Stillbirths
Multiple births
Background mortality
Analysis
We focus on individual women in order to examine the correlates of individual cases.
Risk factors
Compositional problems
Graphical analysis
Confirmatory evidence in infant mortality
Regression Analysis
The unit of analysis in the logistic regression model” is the individual birthing by a mother. We distinguish two kinds of outcome:
Conclusion
NOTES
References
The Standard of Living in Denmark in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries
HANS CHR. JOHANSEN
Introduction
GNP and Real Wages
The Content of a Danish Real Wage Index
The Long Run Development in the Eighteenth Century
Short-Run Fluctuations in the Eighteenth Century
The Evidence of Mortality Statistics
Human Stature
Future Research
References
Short-Term Demographic Changes in Relation to Economic Fluctuations: The Case of Tuscany During the Pre-Transitional Period
Introduction
Territory, Wealth, and Population
Sources
Economic Fluctuations and Mortality—the Regional Picture
Economic Fluctuations and Mortality—Analogies and Territorial Differences
Conclusion
NOTES
References
New Evidence on the Standard of Living in Sweden During the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries: Long-Term Development of the Demographic Response to Short-Term Economic Stress
TOMMY BENGTSSON AND MARTIN DRIBE
Introduction
The Standard of Living Development in Sweden—Where Do We Stand?
There can be little disagreement on the long-term development of standard of living in Sweden between, say, 1750 and 1914.
Agricultural production
Real wages for agricultural workers
Investment in human capital
Demographic indicators of standard of living
Anthropometric measures of standard of living
Proletarianization and standard of living
A New Approach to Standard of Living
Area, Data, and Statistical Model
Mortality Response to Economic Stress
Fertility Response to Economic Stress
NOTES
References
Individuals and Communities Facing Economic Stress: A Comparison of Two Rural Areas in Nineteenth-Century Belgium
MICHEL ORIS, MURIEL NEVEN, AND GEORGE ALTER
Introduction
Background
The standard of living debate in Belgium
A comparison of two rural areas in an industrializing region
Data
A Macro (Regional) Comparison of the Influences of Socio-Economic Changes on Family and Demographic Systems
Individual Transitions and Short-Term Economic Stress
From macro to micro
Involuntary answers: mortality and fertility
Voluntary answers: marriage and out-migration
Contrasting Verdicts: Structural Adaptations and Short-Term Stress
NOTES
References
Living Standards in Liaoning, 1749-1909: Evidence from Demographic Outcomes
Introduction
Background
Methods
Results
We organize our presentation of results by demographic outcome.
Fertility
Nuptiality
Mortality
Conclusion
NOTES
References
Demographic Responses to Short-Term Economic Stress in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Rural Japan: Evidence from Two Northeastern Villages
NORIKO O.TSUYA AND SATOMI KUROSU
Introduction
Background
Population changes and economic conditions in Tokugawa Japan
The setting and local population changes
Rice price and agrarian economy in Tokugawa Japan
Family farming and household landholding
Trends of regional and local socio-economic changes
Data and Methods
Data
Methods
Variables
Dependent variables
Covariates
Results of the Discrete-Time Event-History Analyses
In this section, we examine, in a multivariate context, demographic responses to short-term economic stress and household resources, focusing on each of the four demographic behaviours: mortality, marital fertility, first marriage, and out-migration.
Mortaiity
Marital fertility
First marriage
Out-migration
Temporal Changes in the Causal Mechanism of Demographic Responses
Conclusions and Discussion
NOTES
References
Index

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