Grain output

Between 1696 and 1796, in European Russia (within the boundaries of 1696), nearly 21.4 million hectares of woods were cleared and put to agricultural use. The share of meadows and pastures rose from 20% to 31% of total agricultural land.

annexed during the eighteenth century). Total crop area was extended even more, owing to the transition from a two- field system to a three-field system and from a system of land long disused to a system of regular fallow land. This is clearly seen from the following data: in 1763—96 in European Russia sown area was extended by 1.5 times, while in 1780—1800 total output increased by 1.6 times and according to some estimates even doubled (Rubinshtein 1957: 327—34; Tsvetkov 1957: 110—18, 133; Mironov 1979: 115—17). Since no major technical innovations were introduced into agriculture it is reasonable to assume that this required an increase in labour costs on the part of the peasantry. The increase in crop area resulted in an increase in agricultural produce. Before the 1770s, grain harvests rose also, owing to rising yield capacity. In 1696-1763 crop area was extended by 1.7 times, yield capacity rose by 1.3 times, consequently corn harvests increased by 2.2 times whereas population increased by 1.8 times (see Table 10.3).

However, the intensive cultivation of land without proper application of fertilizers and a decrease in fallow fields, as well as unusually adverse weather conditions throughout most of Europe (Borisenkov and Pasetskii 1988: 62-91, 504; Komlos 1989: 110-11), resulted in a decline in yield capacity by 39.9% in the main agricultural regions in the last three decades of the eighteenth century (see Table 10.4).⁴

Due to this fall in yields, capacity grain output began to lag behind the increase in crops, but remained ahead of population growth.

Table 10.3 Size (in 1,000 ha) and distribution of land resources in eighteenth-century European Russia, crop capacity, and population (in millions)

‘ Output/Seed ratios for the main grains

Source: Indova 1970: 141-55, Kabuzan 1971: 52, Klochkov 1915: 150, Tsvetkov 1957: 110-14.

Table 10.4 Output/seed ratios for the major grains in central Russia in the eighteenth century, by decades

Source: Indova 1970: 141—55.

In the 1790s net output of food grains per rural capita was approximately 250 kg, excluding oats (100 kg) and excluding seeds (Rubinshtein 1957: 374—80).

Why was this so? In 1790-9 a peasant had to sell a considerable part of his agricultural produce in order to pay taxes, rent, and to buy other goods that he needed and did not produce himself. The analysis of tax and rent explicitly shows this (see Tables 10.5 and Tables 10.6).

4.3