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3 Marx 1977, p. 45. In Volume I of Capital Marx wrote: ‘His means of subsistence must therefore be sufficient to maintain him in his normal state as a working individual. His natural needs, such as food, clothing, fuel and housing vary according to the climatic and other physical peculiarities of his country. On the other hand, the number and extent of his so-called necessary requirements, as also the manner in which they are satisfied, are themselves products of history, and depend therefore to a great extent on the level of civilization attained by a country; in particular they depend on the conditions in which, and consequently on the

37 Engels, ‘Supplement to Volume 3 of Capital, in Marx 1992, p. 1037. A response to the third

206 In The Philosophy of Right, Hegel also spoke of commodity exchange in terms of a dialectic of value. Money, Hegel said, represents ‘any and every thing' and makes all things com­mensurable (Hegel 1967, p. 59). ‘Utility' (or use-value) was the qualitative and subjective aspect of value (Hegel 1967, p. 51), while the quantitative aspect (what Adam Smith called ‘value in exchange') was measured by money, the universal, which has no utility in itself but ‘counts as value alone' (Hegel 1967, pp. 62-3). Since Hegel thought of Nature as freely given, he concluded, as Marx did later, that what gives commodities their value must be human labour: ‘Through work the raw material directly supplied by nature is specifically adapted to... numerous ends.... Now this formative change confers value on means and gives them their utility... It is the product of human effortwhichman consumes’ (Hegel 1967,

211 If equilibrium prevailed, all capitals would earn the same rate of profit and commodities would sell at their ‘price of production' as distinct from fluctuating market prices. But the price of production is a conceptual norm about which market prices always fluctuate. Labour expenditure is the ‘essence' of value that ‘exists' as market prices: ‘Price therefore is distinguished from value... because the latter appears as the law of motions which the former runs through. But the two are constantly different and never balance out, or balance only coincidentally or exceptionally. The price of a commodity constantly stands above or below the value of the commodity, and the value of a commodity exists only in this up-and-down movement of commodity prices. Supply and demand constantly

233 Marx 1993, p. 700. On p. 706 of the Grundrisse Marx writes: ‘Capital itself is the moving contradiction [in] that it presses to reduce labour time to a minimum, while it posits labour time, on the other side, as sole measure and source of wealth. On the one side

19 [A paraphrase of these passages in Capital: ‘It is concentration of capitals already formed,

13 On some points, however, it should probably not be ruled out that Engels could make some modifications to the text in later editions. For example, it is almost incomprehensible why we are expected to torment ourselves, in simple numerical examples, with the old- fashioned English currency system and its impossible divisions in pounds, shillings and pence, when we have the convenient decimal currency in Germany, or with acres and quarters, instead of hectolitres and hectares? It is also likely that Engels will convince himself, on closer examination, that entire pages from old reports of the 1840s and 1850s

54 [‘The proportion of the total rental, either to the total area of land cultivated or to the total capital invested in the soil... is not determined only by the rent per acre or by the rate of rent on capital but just as much by the relative proportion of each soil type in the total acreage tilled; or, what comes to the same thing, by the distribution of the total capital applied among the various types of soil. the relative level of average rents per acre, and the average rate of rent or the ratio of the total rental to the total capital invested in the soil, may rise or fall even though prices, the difference in fertility of the lands under cultivation

63 [The Hegelian influence on this matter was evident in Grundrisse when Marx referred to the relation between value and price in terms of a ‘constant negation of the negation’:

‘The value of commodities as determined by labour time is only their average value. The average appears as an external abstraction if it is calculated out as the average figure of an epoch, e.g. 1 lb. of coffee = is. if the average price of coffee is taken over 25 years; but it is very real if it is at the same time recognized as the driving force and the moving principle of the oscillations which commodity prices run through during a given epoch... The market value is always different, is always below or above this average price of a commodity. Market value equates itself with real value by means of its constant oscillations, never by means of an equation with real value as if the latter were a third party, but rather by means of constant non-equation of itself (as Hegel would say, not by way of abstract identity, but by constant negation of the negation, i.e. of itself as negation of real value). Price therefore is distinguished from value. because the latter appears as the law of the motions which the former runs through. But the two are constantly different and never balance out, or balance only coincidentally and exceptionally. The price of a commodity constantly stands above or below the value of a commodity, and the value of the commodity itself exists only in this up-and-down movement of commodity prices.

14 In his excellent essay, ‘Marx and the Dialectic', printed as an appendix to his pamphlet Marx as Thinker, Max Adler has uncovered the causes of the confusion about the concept of dialectics, which consists of the fact that in Hegel two very different things appear under the same name of dialectics, sometimes a way of thinking, i.e. a method, and sometimes a way of being, that is an essential condition. ‘If we call these two meanings, which indeed had to come together as a result of the identity standpoint of Hegel's philosophy, with special names, if we call the method, i.e. the demonstration of the contradictory character of thought in the flow of its contents dialectics, as Hegel himself did, and the contradictory character of being in the course of its real processes antagonism, it becomes at once clear what completely disparate things the Hegelian dialectic could unite, above all because it was not just merely a method.

‘The criticism and overcoming of Hegel consisted for Marx now in the tearing apart of that mystical appearance in which dialectics are constituted at the same time as antagonism, and this was done by that luminous insight which dissolved the metaphysical character of Hegelian dialectic while at the same time preserved its method, showing that the self-movement of the logical categories was only the movement of individual thought, through which the latter went from one determination of thought to another. In this way the mystification of the thought process as a creative power was eliminated, thought [was no longer considered] as a movement creating the world out of itself, while at the

2 [The reference is to Eduard Bernstein's call during the ‘Revisionist Controversy' for a return to the critical attitude of Immanuel Kant in revising Marxist theory: ‘Social Democracy needs a Kant to judge the received judgment and subject it to the most trenchant criticism, to show where its apparent materialism is the highest and therefore most easily misleading ideology, and to show that contempt for the ideal and the magnifying of material factors until they become omnipotent forces of evolution is a self-deception which has been, and will be, exposed as such by the very actions of those who proclaim it' (Bernstein 1993, p. 209). In response, G.V. Plekhanov wrote: we have not the least desire to follow this “critic's advice”

22 It is therefore the formal determination of wealth, rather than wealth itself, that consti­tutes the problem for theoretical economics. In this, their formal determination, however, the goods, use-values, become commodities, and therefore become exchange-values and have a value. As use-values, by contrast, ‘they constitute the material content of wealth, whatever its social form maybe' (Marx 1976, p. 126).

Sapienti sat [est] (a word to the wise is sufficient). For Eduard Bernstein's sake the following should also be noted. Amidst the comic excitement that the publication of the Marx-Studien threw him into (see his criticism in Dokumenten des Sozialismus, Vol. ιv, p. 153), he discovered that behind use-value lies the whole of political economy. This is not exactly precise, but on the other hand it is correct if we think that theoretical economics begins as soon as it finds out about use-value and discovers there the people in their relations of production. But this is certainly not the opinion of Bernstein, who

53 The extent to which this conception is still shared by bourgeois economists can be shown by many examples. Let us cite the words of Gottl-Ottlilienfeld: ‘In the final analysis, our will (Wollen) is manifest in our needs; the will, in principle, has no limits. Will is opposed to our ability (Konnen), which is measured in turn by the degree of our power over the means of satisfying (needs); but every ability is, in principle limited, since otherwise it would be all-powerful. Limited ability and unlimited will. This inevitably leads to conflict' (Gottl-Ottlilienfeld 1914, p. 208). Gottl's words dramatically illustrate that the basis for the doctrine of unlimited human needs is an idealistic conception of an unlimited human

109 Ibid. It is easy to see here an external resemblance between Marx’s discussion and Hegel’s schemes at the beginning of his Logic. While Hegel considers first ‘being’ and then ‘noth­ingness’, in order subsequently to reconcile them in ‘becoming’, Marx follows the same scheme: first he considers both use-value and exchange-value as being; then comes the contradiction of their being, followed by exploration of their becoming, i.e. the process of the actual movement of commodities in exchange. The similarity with Hegel’s schemes

78 N[ikolai] Sieber, David Ricardo and Karl Marx (St. Petersburg, 1897), p. 82 et seq [For

12 Marx 1970, p. 28. Here (page 3 of the 1859 German edition), as in many other places, Marx’s use of Einheit - [translated above as ‘common denominator’] - means ^,e∂uHcmβσ^,, not ‘eduHuu,a’. It is unfortunate that translators often mistakenly use the word ^,e∂uHuu,a^,. [In Russian, ‘eduHcmeo’ implies a wide-reaching ‘unity’ or ‘common denominator’ of many things, whereas ^,∕∙r)uHiaιa' implies a ‘unit’]. For instance, on page 14 of the German edi­tion of Volume I of Capital Marx writes: ‘Man mag daher eine einzelne Ware drehen und wenden, wie man will, sie bleibt unfaβbar als Wertding. Erinnern wir uns jedoch, daβ die Waren nur Wertgegenstandlichkeit besitzen, sofern sie Ausdrucke derselben gesell- schaftlichen Einheit, menschlicher Arbeit, sind, daβ ihre Wertgegenstandlichkeit also rein gesellschaftlich ist, so versteht sich auch von selbst, daβ sie nur im gesellschaftlichen Ver- haltnis von Ware zu Ware erscheinen kann’ (Marx-Engels Werke, Band 23, ‘Das Kapital’, Bd. I, erster Abschnitt, Berlin/DDR: Dietz Verlag, 1968, p. 62). On p. 11 of the 1928 Russian edition the relevant passage is translated as ‘eupaxeHuA o∂hou u mou xe e∂uHuu,a HβΛeβe- uecκoro mpyda’ [‘expressions of one and the same unit of human labour’]. [The standard English-language version of Capital translates this as: ‘We may twist and turn a single com­

140 [In Russian, Aacτιιι>ιh' (private) sometimes means the same as ⅛0HκpeτHMn' (concrete)

268 These ‘gifts’ often served the giver as a means of strengthening his social position, pur­chasing the assistance or neutrality of a powerful neighbour, etc. In the mid-eighteenth century, one of the Indian princes, occupying his throne with the aid of English troops, gave to the commander of the latter, the famous Clive, a ‘gift’ of 2-3 million gold roubles. See Th.B. Macauly, ‘Lord Clive’, in Critical and Historical Essays, London: J.M. Dent and Sons Ltd., 1907, Vol. i, p. 518. The history of India abounds with such examples. ‘According to the lists laid before Parliament, between 1757 and 1766 the company (the reference is to the East-India Company, which employed the illustrious Clive - i.r.) and its officials

194 Marx 1992, p. 969. [Here Rubin is partly paraphrasing and partly quoting. In the original