References and further reading
Arnon, A. (2011), Monetary Theory and Policy from Hume and Smith to Wicksell. Money, Credit and the Economy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fetter, F.W. (1965), Development of British Monetary Orthodoxy: 1797-1875, Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, reprinted 1978, Fairfield, NJ: A.M.
Kelley.Fullarton, J. (1844), On the Regulation of Currencies; being an Examination of the Principles on which it is Proposed to Restrict, within Certain Fixed Limits, the Future Issue on Credit of the Bank of England, and of the Other Banking Establishments throughout the Country, London: John Murray.
Horsefield, J.K. (1944), ‘The origins of the Bank Charter Act, 1844’, Economica, reprinted in T.S. Ashton and R.S. Sayers (eds) (1953), Papers in English Monetary History, Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 109-25.
O’Brien, D.P. (1997), ‘Monetary base control and the Bank Charter Act of 1844’, History of Political Economy, 29 (4), 593-633.
Skaggs, N.T. (1991), ‘John Fullarton’s law of reflux and central bank policy’, History of Political Economy, 23 (Fall), 457-80.
Smith, M. (2003), ‘Central banking rules: Tooke’s critique of the Bank Charter Act of 1844’, Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 25 (1), 39-61.
Smith, M. (2011), Thomas Tooke and the Monetary Thought of Classical Economics, London: Routledge.
Thornton, H. (1802), An Enquiry into the Nature and Effects of the Paper Credit of Great Britain, London: J. Hatchard.
Tooke, T. (1838-57), History of Prices and of the State of the Circulation during the Years 1703-1856, 6 vols, vols 1-3, London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, vol. 4, London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, vols 5-6, with W. Newmarch, London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans and Roberts.
Tooke, T. (1844), An Inquiry into the Currency Principle: The Connection of the Currency with Prices and the Expediency of a Separation of Issue from Banking, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
Non-Marxian socialist ideas in France emerged in a political movement, which progressively constituted itself in the early nineteenth century, and are inextricably linked with an enhanced political, syndical, cooperative and cultural awareness and identification among workers or a working class within industrial society.
This movement progressively built up a provenance for itself, prior to, and when faced with, the influence of Karl Marx (1818-1883), the full diversity of which remains largely unrecognized. The works of Claude Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) and Franςois Marie Charles Fourier (1772-1837) are at the origin of the movement and were highly influential in the 1820-30s. Each of the two ensuing schools of thought had their own followers: the Saint-Simonian school with Barthelemy Prosper Enfantin (1796-1864), Saint-Amand Bazard (1791-1832), Michel Chevalier (1806-1879) or Emile Pereire (1800-1875) and his brother Isaac (1806-1880); and the Fourierist school with Victor Considerant (18081893), for example.There were also dissident authors - mainly Pierre Leroux, who is well known for having provided one of the first definitions of socialism in 1833, but also Philippe Buchez (1796-1865) or Constantin Pecqueur (1801-1887). Leaving aside the communist utopias of Etienne Cabet’s (1788-1856) (Sutton 1994) and Alexandre Theodore Dezamy (1808-1850) (Maillard 1999), the second phase of French socialism is intrinsically linked with the names of Pecqueur, Franςois Vidal (1812-1872), Louis Blanc (1811-1882), Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881) and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), who all played a role in the 1848 Revolution but also in the constitution of the First International in 1864.
The influence of these schools of thought can clearly be felt in the third key phase which is marked by the institutionalization and success of French socialist movements and their ideas (for example, access to parliamentary representation). This phase then carried over to the Third Republic after the end of the Paris Commune and the fierce repression that followed. At this point, the intellectual and political context changed, and French socialism became confronted with the considerable influence of German Marxian socialism in France and the First International (whose theorist, as a matter of fact, was Marx).
A voluntarist movement emerged, from Benoit Malon (1841-1893) to Jean Jaures (1859-1914), to constitute a French filiation of socialism with a specific profile (“integral socialism”), in particular as regards the economy (“collectivism”). However, this third phase remained diverse despite an effort to bolster ideological and political unity.The main focus here is on the economic contents of these socialist ideas, which, while suffering from various shortcomings, contain important ideas. The period examined ranges from 1820 to 1914. After this, everything changed. A long series of causes gradually ate away at the diversity of socialist ideas: that is, the downslide of the Second International into nationalism, the part taken by non-Marxian socialists in the French “Union sacree” in 1914 and the ravages caused by the war, the upheavals brought about by the Third International, the historical divide brought about by the majority decision to create a communist party which broke up the SFIO (French Section of the Worker’s International), and finally the Bolshevik interpretation of Marxism and state socialism.